How To Research

Strong research skills are essential for academic success, serving as the foundation upon which students build their knowledge and critical thinking abilities. Knowing where and how to search for information, and having the capacity to evaluate the quality and relevance of the sources you encounter, empowers students to navigate the complex landscape of academia effectively. These skills will not only enable you to produce high-quality assignments and research papers but also equip you with the tools to engage in insightful discussions, contribute meaningfully to class debates, and excel in exams. Beyond the classroom, these research abilities translate into valuable life skills, as they equip individuals to make well-informed decisions, analyze complex issues, and stay informed in an ever-evolving world. In essence, strong research skills are an investment that pays dividends throughout one's academic career and beyond.

In this module you will learn:

• How to choose a research topic.
• The various types of resources that are out there to draw from.
• How to utilize library resources.
• How to effectively search the web.
• How to evaluate your resources for quality.
• How to fact check information and spot fake news.

Choose a Topic

This module explains how to choose a research topic that fits within the bounds of your assignment and is neither too broad nor too narrow. Start by taking a look at your assignment. Does it provide you with topic options, or can you select your own?

Begin by identifying your general area of interest, within the boundaries of your assignment, and then narrow it down by asking specific questions within that domain. Consider the scope and time constraints of your project to ensure its manageable. Conduct preliminary research to gauge the availability of information and resources on your chosen topic. Ultimately, aim for a topic that's specific enough to delve into deeply, yet broad enough to find sufficient credible sources and make meaningful contributions to your project. From there, begin to form a research strategy. The type of information you need to find will dictate where you need to search. Websites or library resources? Think about what you need to find and where it will be located.

The Art of Keywords

Keywords

Keywords are words that hold the essence, or the key idea, of what you are trying to find. Using relevant keywords in your search will lead you to better information. You can identify the first keywords from the topic itself.

Topic example: Why do some Canadians choose to purchase electric cars?

Keywords: reasons, Canadians, purchase, electric cars

Synonyms

Synonyms are words that have the same, or similar meaning as the main keywords. Synonyms and keywords are interchangeable, which means that the meaning of your search will remain the same.

Here are a few synonyms for the topic: Why do some Canadians choose to purchase electric cars?

reasons: decisions

Canadians: Canadian people, Canadian drivers

purchase: buy, acquire

electric cars: hybrid vehicles, electric vehicles, hybrid cars

Related Terms

Related terms are words that generally mean the same thing as the main keywords. For example: tablet - device, car - vehicle, pop - carbonated drink. While related terms don’t mean exactly the same thing as the words they are replacing, they are an excellent tool for broadening the scope of your search.

Here are a few related terms for the topic: Why do some Canadians choose to purchase electric cars?

reasons: incentives, preferences

Canadians: Ontario drivers, drivers, motor vehicle operators

purchase: lease, rent

electric cars: driverless cars, environmentally friendly vehicles

Watch: Choosing Keywords and Brainstorming Synonyms Produce a list of useful keywords to help you find more sources.

Choosing Keywords and Finding Synonyms — Activity

Types of Resources

Your assignment will often indicate which types of resources you should use to support your work. Whether you search the web, or look for information through the library, this module will help you to become familiar with the various types of resources available to you, and the benefits of using them.

Information comes in many different formats. Some types of resources are academic, while others are popular and informal. Understanding the various types of content available to you will make it easier to plan your research. Click below to learn more about the various types of information sources.

Books and eBooks

From an information perspective, print and ebooks are the same. The main difference between them is access. Print books are physical items, whereas ebooks are digital files that can be accessed from a variety of devices.

Book publication can take a long time. First, the author researches the topic, then they write a draft. The unpublished manuscript is then sent to a publisher to be edited, rewritten, and finally ... published.

This can be a lengthy process and explains why even if a book is released less than a year ago, it likely doesn’t contain up-to-the minute information.

Why use books/ebooks?

Books provide overviews, background, history and introductions as well as in-depth examinations of topics. They are useful when you are looking for in-depth information on a topic, or background overview of a subject area.

Journal Articles

When researching a topic for your academic work, you may be asked to find “scholarly” / “academic” / “research” / “peer reviewed” journal articles.

These terms are sometimes used interchangeably, but not all articles are peer reviewed, and there are slight differences between these categories. The main thing to note is that all of these types of articles are found in journals (as opposed to magazines, newspapers, or books).

Journals can be found through your library’s databases or sometimes on the web (if the journal is “open access” - meaning there is no pay wall before you read the articles).

Peer Reviewed Articles:

Some journals (categorized as “peer reviewed journals”) specifically publish articles that have been peer reviewed. In order for an article to be published in a peer reviewed journal, it has to go through a formal submission process which includes a peer review stage where experts ensure the accuracy, originality, significance, and other characteristics of the research before it is accepted for publication. These articles are highly regarded because the findings and results have been reviewed by experts in the field. Therefore, peer reviewed articles are viewed as credible and authoritative.

Research Articles:

In a research article a researcher, or group of researchers, present findings of their research. These articles can also be considered academic and scholarly, and they may be peer-reviewed.

Academic / Scholarly Articles:

The terms academic and scholarly journal articles are used interchangeably, and can also sometimes be peer reviewed research articles, but can also be opinion pieces or book reviews if they are published in peer reviewed journals. When you search for a journal article, make sure to look at the title and content. If your instructor wants you to find a full-length research article, you don’t want to choose an opinion piece or book review.

Download the below documents to learn more about Journal Articles:

• What's the Difference?(opens in new window)
• How to Identify a Scholarly Article(opens in new window)

Video: Scholarly Sources

Trade Magazines

Trade magazines or trade journals publish articles aimed at people working in a particular field. The content focuses on information about working in the profession, trends, and news related to that field or trade, rather than academic research.

Consider this type of source to be more practical than the more theoretical and philosophical academic journals.

Examples of trade magazines / journals include:

• Broadcast Dialogue(opens in new window)
• Design Develop Construct Journal(opens in new window)

Popular Magazines

Popular magazines publish articles that typically focus on information from pop culture. Articles are usually short, with a casual tone, and often have images embedded throughout.

Examples of popular magazines include:

• Chatelaine(opens in new window)
• Maclean's(opens in new window)
• Style at Home(opens in new window)

In comparison, scholarly articles are long, black and white, and have statistical tables and graphs included as part of the research. Academic papers also have a long list of references available at the end of the paper.

While popular magazine articles are informative, and often mention academic research, they may not be the best choice to include as part of academic research. However, you may be able to track down the original study that the popular article mentions and use that as one of your sources.

Video: Popular vs. Scholarly Articles

Open Access Journals

Open access journals are online academic publications, made available to readers without subscription fees, free of charge. Traditional publishers (e.g. Sage(opens in new window), Oxford University Press(opens in new window)) also make some of their content available through open access.

Examples of open access journals:

• The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning(opens in new window)
• Age and Ageing(opens in new window)

Open access articles can be found through Google, Google Scholar, or any other search engine, as well as through the college library.

When using open access literature for academic work, make sure to evaluate the content critically(opens in new window).

Grey Literature

Grey literature refers to materials published non-commercially. These materials can be made available by the government, academia, non-for-profit, business and trade organizations, in print and digital formats.

Examples of grey literature include:

• Conference proceedings
• Reports (e.g. statistical, technical, committee reports)
• White papers
• Flyers
• Newsletters
• Fact sheets
• Theses and dissertations
• Patents
• Unpublished materials

Why use grey literature?

It is sometimes more current than published research, and it is a great way to supplement your research, providing your project with a full picture viewpoint. You can find grey literature online, by searching Google (or another search engine), and/or Google Scholar.

Video: What is Grey Literature?

Websites

Websites are the most prolific of online resources, and can be found using a search engine (like Google). Websites can serve a variety of purposes.

Here are a few examples:

• Individuals – showcase work in a portfolio, to communicate a message
• For profit companies – promote their brand, or market their products
• Non profit companies – promote their cause
• Governments – educate citizens and publish government based research
• Educational institutions – publish information related to programs and courses, as well as information relevant for the academic community
• And more

When using information from websites for your academic work, make sure to evaluate the content critically- opens in new window.

Video: Resource Types: Websites

Social Media

Social media posts can be a great source of information. Social media can also add to information overload. In order to tap into the most relevant information, identify relevant #hashtags, @profiles, conversation threads, and blogs on your topic of interest.

Here are examples of the different types of social media platforms:

• Facebook - Pages and Groups
• X/ Twitter - #hashtags and @profiles
• TikTok - #hashtags and @profiles
• Blogs - personal reflections, and sharing
• Wikis - crowdsourced information
• Discussion fora (forums) - conversations on a specific topic

Whenever you use content found on social media for your academic work, make sure to evaluate the content critically- opens in new window.

Types of Resources: Articles — Activity

Search Library Resources

Before you begin your search, identify the types of information you are required to use in your assignment. This can easily help you narrow down search results. The searching stage of your assignment can often take a long time, but putting in the time at this stage will reward you with relevant results that will make writing your assignment much easier. Many library resources include features like the ability to email yourself articles, cite them, and link you to more articles of the same type. Using library resources can help save you time and find quality information.

Library Search Tools

Discovery Layers

What is a Discovery Layer?

A discovery layer is a multidisciplinary search tool. Discovery layers are like search engines (think: Google) for library content. Using your library's discovery layer, you will be able to find:

1. subscription articles in databases
2. e-content (ebooks, eaudiobooks, streaming media)
3. open access content
4. physical library resources (e.g. books, DVDs, magazines).

Because they search through subscription database content, discovery layers can only be used by the college community (students, faculty, staff). Not all of your college library’s database content can be found through its discovery layer, regardless, it is a good place to start your research.

Video: Searching Your Library Using a Discovery Layer

Databases

What is a Database?

Databases are searchable collections of resources on a variety of subjects. Databases are subscription-based and are paid for by college libraries so that students can access the information.

Libraries buy database subscriptions from vendors, like Ebsco, ProQuest, Gale, to name a few. You can think of vendors like cable company providers: Bell, Rogers, Shaw - and their content packages. Same principle.

Content found in databases can include newspaper articles, journal articles, encyclopedia articles, streaming media, and more. When professors ask you to find scholarly, or peer reviewed academic articles, you can search for them in databases.

Video: What are the Library Databases and which one should I Use?

Filters

Using Filters

Discovery layers and individual databases have filters (sometimes called “limits”) that help you refine your search so that you retrieve results that are more accurate and relevant to what you are looking for.

The three most commonly used filters are:

• Available Online/In Your Library/Full Text. Regardless of the wording, this filter ensures that you are finding sources that you are able to view in its entirety.
• Peer Reviewed. This ensures that all results are from peer reviewed journals.
• Date Range/Publication Date. This filter limits your search to material published within a particular time frame.

Video: Using Common Database Filters to Refine Your Search

Searching Language

Introduction

About Search Language

You may think that you don’t need to learn how to search a library database, because you’ve had good luck searching Google (or another web search engine) to find information. But searching a library database is different from searching for information using Google.

In Google, you can type a question in the same way you might ask it in a conversation, for example: What are the health benefits of regular exercise? This is called searching using natural language.

In a library database, however, you should search using keywords, and not natural language; statements or questions. Keywords are usually nouns, e.g. people, places or things. Don’t include words like why, what, where, when, if, the, etc. in your database search.

Before searching a library database, identify all the keywords in your topic, or research question. For the question above, you could start your search with the keywords health benefits exercise.

The Choose a Topic module features helpful information on selecting keywords, and brainstorming synonyms. 

Boolean Operators

Video: Searching with Operators

What Are Boolean Operators?

Boolean Operators (Operators), including AND, OR, and NOT, are words that make it easy for you to customize the results of your search.

When searching for information in a library database or a search engine, you may want to combine some keywords, or exclude certain words, to ensure that your search results are more focused or relevant to your topic.

Tip: In library databases, you don’t need to capitalize proper nouns (e.g. Twitter, Trudeau or Ontario), but Operators must be typed in all capital letters, e.g. NOT, AND, OR.

AND

Using the AND operator tells the database that all words, or terms, that you have connected with AND must be found in any results returned.

If, for example, you are searching for articles about marketing with Twitter, you could search for: marketing AND Twitter. If either word (marketing or Twitter) is not found in an article, it will not appear in your results.

NOT

The Operator NOT will narrow your search results by excluding or removing a specific word or words from the search results.

For example, if you’re researching marketing but are not interested in articles about marketing using Twitter, you could search for: marketing NOT Twitter.

Your results from this search will not include any articles that contain the word Twitter.

OR

For a broader search, to find articles that discuss marketing with Facebook or Twitter, you could use the Operator OR, e.g. marketing AND (Facebook OR Twitter). The results from this search will include articles that talk about marketing and Facebook, or marketing and Twitter, or marketing and Facebook and Twitter.

In the above example, you'll see that brackets are included in the search. When you are using more than one Operator in a search (e.g. AND and OR, or NOT and OR), you will need to group your keywords and operator words using brackets, so that the database knows which action to perform first.

Phrases

Video: Searching with Phrases

How do I Search for a Phrase?

Sometimes you might want to search for a phrase, where the words always appear together and in a specific order. Watch the video and read the information below to learn more about how to search for phrases.

Quotation Marks (“ ”)

• Most library databases support the use of quotation marks when searching for an exact phrase, (i.e. exactly the same words in the same exact order). Place quotation marks around the phrase, which could be two or more words.
• Quotation marks instruct the database to return results that include that exact phrase. Searching for an exact phrase can help to reduce the number of irrelevant results.

For example, if you search for articles about body language (without quotation marks), your results will include both words, but body might be on the first page of the article, and language on the last.

Searching for “body language” will only return results that include that exact phrase. Using quotation marks to search for an exact phrase will narrow down your results and make them more relevant. Exact phrase searching with quotation marks will also work in Google.

There are, however, a few databases that do not recognize or support exact phrase searching using quotation marks. If you get no results, or too few, remove the quotation marks from around your phrase and search again.

Wildcards

What Are Wildcards?

A wildcard is a special character that replaces one or more letters in a word. Common wildcard symbol used in different databases include:

• the question mark (?)
• the pound sign (#)
• the dollar sign ($)
• the percentage symbol (%)
• the exclamation mark (!)

When keyword searching you may want to search for all variations of that word. You may miss relevant and useful results if the term you have searched for does not appear in that exact form in an article or book. Wildcard symbols can help you to find word variations.

If you want or need to use a wildcard in your search, check the help section in the database you’re using to find the wildcard options. Wildcard examples include:

• globali?ation (the $ sign could be replacing an ‘s’ or a ‘z’)
• colo#r (the # could replace one extra letter, and search results will include color or colour)

Open Access Journals

Video: Capturing Word Variations

What is Truncation?

To ‘truncate’ a word simply means to shorten it by removing one or more letters to go back to the root word.

Let’s imagine we are searching for articles about house prices in Canada. If we search for those keywords only, house prices Canada, we may miss articles that include the words houses, housing, price, pricing, Canada’s or Canadians. If we truncate each word, we will get more results.

To truncate, use only the root of your search terms, followed by an asterisk (*).

  To search house prices in Canada, we could truncate all keywords and search for: hous* pric* Canad*.

  You do need to be careful using when using truncation. Truncating too many letters from a word can lead to unexpected results. For example, searching for nursing in Canada using the truncated word nurs* will also bring back results about nurseries, and truncating Canada to Can* may retrieve articles with words like cantaloupe, cancer, canned, etc.

Search the Web

Before you begin your search, identify the types of information you are required to use in your assignment. This can easily help you narrow down search results. The searching stage of your assignment can often take a long time, but putting in the time at this stage will reward you with relevant results that will make writing your assignment much easier. Learn some of the best strategies for searching the web, including powerful Google tips and tricks, and using Google Scholar for locating scholarly journal articles on the web, and in your library's databases.

Google Research

Google is a powerful search tool, but its additional features are under-utilized. Learn about the various filtering and advanced search features available to you.

Things to consider:

• Research can be done using multiple tools such as Google and library databases.
• Always evaluate what you find to ensure that you're using credible sources in your assignments.

Search for News, Videos, and Book Excerpts

Filter by Type

When you do a Google search, you can filter your results to see only news, videos, books, and more.

To filter your results, choose the type of results (News, Videos, etc.) from the menu at the top of the results list. Click More to see other options such as Books.

Filter by Date

1. Search for your chosen search terms and click News from the menu.
2. Click Tools to display the Tools menu for News.
3. Click Recent and select a time frame from the drop-down menu, depending on how recent you want the news articles to be.

Search for Statistics

We recommend Statistics Canada for up to date and extensive information. Statistics Canada is a website and government agency legislated to provide statistics for Canada and each of its provinces.

• Statistics Canada Census Program - open in a new tab
• Statistics Canada Data Tables - open in a new tab

Find More Statistics through Google:

Find more statistics by Googling the topic you want to know more about and adding the words Canada statistics. For example, Homeless youth Canada Statistics.

Evaluate your Search Results

As with all research online, be sure to assess the following aspects of the information:

• Currency (how old are these statistics?)
• Authority (who published these statistics?)

Search for Images

Google allows you to filter your search results to images. When searching for images for your assignments, search for images that you are allowed to reuse.

To search for reusable images in Google:

1. Search for your chosen search terms and click Images from the menu.
2. Click Tools to display the Tools menu for images.
3. Click Usage Rights and select Creative Commons licenses from the drop-down menu. This will narrow your results to images with Creative Commons licenses. To learn more about Creative Commons licenses, check out the Find Media- opens in a new tab module.
4. Filter your search by size, colour or image type as needed using the options in the Tools menu.
5. Click on the suggested keywords to narrow your search with more specific keywords, as needed.

Cite Images

Just like information, most images you use will need to be cited or attributed in some way. When you find an image you are allowed to use, ask yourself the following questions:

• Did my instructor tell me the image has to be cited in APA or MLA format, or that I just need to "give credit"?
• Is there a specific way the website is telling me to give credit, such as the image creator's name and URL?
• What is the URL of this image? (It's not just www.google.ca!)

For more information on citing images, visit the Build Citations page of the Research hub.

Search for an Exact Phrase

Sometimes your search results won't really reflect your prompt. In these cases it can be very helpful to utilize quotation marks. This can help you to get results that are more accurate to your topic.

Use Quotation Marks Around the Entire Phrase

By using quotation marks in your search, you can search for an exact phrase where specific words are directly beside each other. For example, “improve your body image”.

Use Quotation Marks Around an Important Word

Sometimes, if Google can't find results for all of your search terms, it gives you results of the best match. To ensure that all results MUST include a particular word, you can use quotation marks around that important word, e.g. “body image” and “food”

Search Within a Website

To search search for information on pages within a single website:

1. Start your google search with site:
2. Add the website URL, e.g. site:travel.gc.ca
3. Add your search terms, e.g. site:travel.gc.ca covid-19

This will retrieve all pages on the specific website that contain your search terms. In the example, google would retrieve pages on travel.gc.ca (Government of Canada travel website) that contain the term COVID-19.

Tips:

• You don't need to include the http://www. part of the URL.
• Make sure there are no spaces between the word site: and the beginning of the URL.

Specific Types of Websites

You can search for specific types of websites by searching for specific domain types.

1. Type your search terms into the search box.
2. Add site: and the domain type for which you are searching, e.g. children poverty site:.org

Common domain types and their meanings:

• .ca (Canadian)
• .edu (US-based post secondary institutions)
• .gc.ca or .canada.ca (Canadian Government)
• .gov (United States Government)
• .org (often used by non-profit organizations)

Specific File Types

You can search for specific files, such as PDFs, by adding file: followed by the document type after your search terms. E.g. Elon Musk file:.pdf

1. Type your search terms into the search box.
2. Add site: and the domain type for which you are searching, e.g. children poverty site:.org

Common file types:

• .pdf (PDF)
• .doc (Microsoft Word)
• .ppt.(Microsoft Powerpoint)
• .xls (Microsoft Excel)

Google Advanced Search

You can open Google Advanced search using either of the following methods:

• Navigate to google.ca/advanced_search - open in a new window
• Begin your search on google.com and then click Settings > Advanced Search.

Tips for Wording Your Search

The Advanced Search Screen gives you tips on how to write out your search. For example:

• Using quotation marks will keep words together as a phrase, e.g. "elon musk"
• Using a minus sign (-) will exclude certain words, e.g. "elon musk" -spacex
• Capitalization does not matter.

Google Scholar

Google Scholar is a search engine for scholarly articles and case law. Not all articles will be full text, and these search results will be different from the articles you will find by searching through your college library; however, if you cannot access an article through Google Scholar, you may be able to find it in Library Search.

Video: Finding Scholarly Articles Using Google Scholar

Features of Google Scholar

• Date range: Choose the currency of your results.
• Cited by: View other articles that list this article as a reference.
• Citations: Click on the quotation mark to get an auto-generated citation. Just be sure to check it against the library's citation guides before including it in your assignment.
• Related articles: If you find a good article you can see similar ones.
• Create alert: If you will be working on a project over the course of a semester, set up an alert to get notified when new articles are published that match your search terms.

Don't miss out on articles. Set up Google Scholar - open in a new window to check if the full text of articles is available via your college library.

Video: Taking Advantage of Google's Advanced Operators

Learn how to turn your ordinary Google searches extraordinary, with advanced operators!

Evaluate your Resources

While collecting content from your library and from around the web, you should also be evaluating the information for quality. Keep in mind that not all the information you find online is credible, reliable, or even appropriate for your topic, so it is important to take a closer look at what you are reading.

Evaluation Checklists: CRAAP Test

Evaluation checklists can be handy tools for evaluating sources. After watching the video, download the CRAAP evaluation checklist and refer to it whenever you're unsure of the reliability of your resources.

Video: True or CRAAP

Evaluating Journal Articles

Academic journal articles are written by experts in their field to communicate or describe research findings on a specific subject. Scholarly journal articles present original research, while others comment on previously published research on a topic, in literature reviews.

Sample Academic Article (Literature Review) Calonge, D., & Shah, M. (2016). MOOCs, Graduate Skills Gaps, and Employability: A Qualitative Systematic Review of the Literature. The International Review Of Research In Open And Distributed Learning, 17(5). doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v17i5.2675

Sample Academic Article (Original Research) Moreira, D. (2016). From On-Campus to Online: A Trajectory of Innovation, Internationalization and Inclusion. The International Review Of Research In Open And Distributed Learning, 17(5). doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v17i5.2384

When evaluating academic journal articles for quality, take a look at the individual sections of the paper.

When evaluating academic journal articles for quality, take a look at the individual sections of the paper.

Abstract

The Abstract is a summary of an article. An Abstract provides a big picture overview of what the article is about, synthesizing the most important information. It should also identify both the purpose of the research, as well as its conclusions.

Question to ask:

1. According to the abstract, what is the main point of the article?

Introduction

The Introduction should give you an understanding of what is being researched, how, and why the research is of importance. When you read the introduction section of a journal article, you should have a clear idea of what the article is about, and what the research focus is.

An Introduction will identify the importance of the research to the academic field, and provide you with a clear hypothesis or a research question/statement.

Questions to ask:

1. What issues do the authors seem concerned about?
2. What is the authors’ research question or hypothesis?

Literature Review

The Literature Review is a comprehensive scan of previously published research on a specific topic. Authors use the literature review to provide readers with a current understanding of the topic, and identify existing research gaps.

Questions to ask:

1. How relevant is the literature review to the article's research question/s?
2. Does the literature review include opposing viewpoints?

Methods

In the Methods section, you should be able to find information about the authors' research process. Was the research qualitative or quantitative? How big was their sample group/test population? On occasion authors will include the full research instrument in the Appendix (at the end of the article). The Methodology section might feature tables, statistical analyses, calculations, and questions asked as part of the research.

Questions to ask:

1. What type of study did the authors undertake to arrive at their results (e.g. randomized trials, case studies)?
2. How was the data collected (e.g. survey, focus groups, individual interviews)?
3. How extensive was the population sample?

Results

The Results section is where you find information about the final results of the authors' research. Here, you should be able to read about the analyzed results of the study, as well as have access to raw statistical data.

Are these results shared with the readers? Are they clearly stated? Is there access to supporting analysis such as graphs, charts, tables that are clear and easy to follow? do you have access to the statistics? Can you figure out the results of the experiment, survey, etc, without a discussion of why they occurred?

Questions to ask:

1. What are the authors' findings?
2. Are the findings aligned to the main research question/s?
3. Do the authors address the problems or limitations of their research methods?

Conclusion

Check out the discussion of the results and the authors overall observations in the conclusion of the article. Are all the results of the experiment, survey, etc discussed? Are the conclusions drawn from this experiment based on enough data? Are there previous studies done on this topic and are they part of the discussion, or are you left confused?

Questions to ask:

1. What evidence do authors provide to support or dispute their research question?
2. Do the authors provide any recommendations as a result of their findings?
3. Are any conflicts of interest disclosed?

References

The References section provides you with a full scope of research consulted as part of the authors' project. References are an excellent way to find additional journal articles on a specific topic.

Fact Checking

Read Laterally

Lateral vs. Vertical Reading

From the context of fake news, vertical reading involves examining the news source to determine the credibility of a news story. This could mean examining a news website's About Us page, looking at grammatical errors within the article, determining the author's bias, and checking the sources the authors used. However, depending solely on vertical reading can be problematic since content is easily created and fabricated online.

In addition to using vertical reading, another method of evaluating news is lateral reading. This involves going beyond the news source and performing further research on the news source, its authors, and information being presented in the news story.

Source: Lateral Reading: Reading Less and Learning More When Evaluating Digital Information - open in a new window

Tips for Reading Laterally

• Investigate the Source Look at what others are telling you about the news source/author and not what they're saying about themselves. Tip: Search the source and author's name to see what types of sites are referencing them or what they're saying about them.
• Go Upstream: Find the Original Source Trace back to the original reporting source of the data or information. Once you've figured out the original source, you can then proceed with verifying its credibility.
• Look for Trusted Sources Check out fact-checking sites to see if these sites have checked the news story. Fact-checking sites can save you time since they have already done the verification work. Consider traditional news sources, such as newspapers. If you're unsure about a news story found in a source you're not familiar with, you can search online to see if the story has been covered by major news sources.
• Practice "Click Restraint" Before clicking on a search result, examine the URL and information snippets about the source.

Sources: Online Verification Skills with Mike Caulfield - open in a new window; Lateral Reading: Reading Less and Learning More When Evaluating Digital Information - open in a new window

Learn more:

Video: Check Yourself with Lateral Reading: Crash Course Navigating Digital Information

Look to your left. Look to your right. Look at this video. Today, John Green is going to teach you how to read laterally, using multiple tabs in your browser to look stuff up and fact check as you read. Real-time fact-checking an help you figure out what's real and what's not on the internet.

Filter Bubble

What are Filter Bubbles?

Filter bubbles are created by algorithms and dictate what we see online. These personalized filters may be based on a combination of different elements, such as our search history, the websites we visit, the posts we comment on, or our location. These algorithms impact the content of our "information diet".

As users, we don't have much control on what gets into our filter bubble, and more importantly we don't know what gets edited out by these algorithms. Filter bubbles could feed us an information diet with mostly "information desserts" and not much "information vegetables". It poses the danger of intellectual isolation where we only see information that reinforces our views, or information that is within our comfort zones. This could potentially hinder our ability to think critically about a topic since algorithms have the power to edit out content which challenges or broadens our worldviews.

Sources: Beware Online "Filter Bubbles" by Eli Pariser; How News Feed Algorithms Supercharge Confirmation Bias by Eli Pariser

Tips for Breaking Out of Your Bubble

• Follow Different Voices Get a balanced information diet by seeking different perspectives of a topic, such as viewing sites that cover diverse perspectives or viewing social media feeds that offer a more balanced viewpoint.
• Go Incognito Use incognito browsers, regularly delete your search histories, and if possible, try to use the Internet without being logged into social media accounts.
• Delete Cookies Browser cookies are files saved into our browsers which determines what we see on a particular website. Consider deleting your cookies in your browser(s) frequently.

Sources: 3 ways to break out of your social media bubble by Mozilla; How filter bubbles distort reality: Everything you need to know - opens in a new window

News/ Websites

Checking Websites for Credibility

• Methods you use for evaluating academic sources (such as the CRAAP test- opens in a new tab) can be applied to websites too.
• Examine the URL: fake news sites will mimic the look of a real news site, but the web address will contain clues. Watch for blogging urls, or unusual domain extensions like '.com.co'.
• Check the 'About Us' and 'Contact' pages.
• Take a look at the other articles, ads and content on the site.
• Do a web search with the name of the site and keyword 'fake'.

Fact-Checking Websites

Fact-checking websites can be useful tools in determining if a news story is accurate. These sites perform the fact-checking by reviewing the story's claims and verifying the validity of the information and authors. Check out some of these fact-checking websites:

• FactCheck.org- opens in a new window
• Google Fact Check Explorer- opens in a new window
• PolitiFact.com- opens in a new window
• SciCheck- opens in a new window
• Snopes.com- opens in a new window
• Statistics canada: The Daily- opens in a new window
• Verified (United Nations)- opens in a new window
• Washington Post Fact Checker- opens in a new window

Images

Verify Images

Video: How to Fact Check Using Google Reverse Image Search

Tips for Fact-Checking Images

• Reverse Image Search Utilize tools like Google Reverse Image Search to trace the origins and usage history of the image. Check for visually similar images and explore different contexts in which the image may have been used.
• Source Verification Identify and verify the original source of the image. Reputable and reliable sources enhance the credibility of the information. Avoid relying solely on social media platforms; go back to the primary source if possible.
• Context Examination Analyze the context in which the image is presented. Ensure that it is not taken out of context or manipulated to convey a misleading narrative. Look for additional information, captions, or surrounding text that may provide context.
• Cross-Verification with Fact-Checking Sites Consult reputable fact-checking websites like Snopes, FactCheck.org, or others to see if the image has been previously debunked or verified. Cross-verify the information and claims associated with the image through multiple sources to ensure accuracy.

Tools

Reverse Image Search Tools: find for the origins of an image by uploading or linking to the image:

• Google Images Reverse Lookup- opens in a new window
• TinEye Reverse Image Search- opens in a new window

Social Media

Verify Social Media

Video: Evaluating Social Media Accounts

Tips for Fact-Checking Social Media Accounts

• Profile Information Assess the authenticity of the profile picture, ensuring it is not a stock image or taken from another source. Examine the bio or description for coherence and relevance, as legitimate accounts typically have clear and genuine information.
• Activity Patterns Analyze the posting frequency and content quality. Be wary of accounts with inconsistent or overly frequent posts, as well as those sharing low-quality or irrelevant content. Check the engagement metrics, including likes and comments, for signs of unusual or inflated activity.
• Follower Details Examine the profiles of some followers to gauge their authenticity. A high number of incomplete profiles or suspicious accounts among followers can be a red flag.
• Verification Status Check for a verification badge, especially for public figures or organizations. However, note that the absence of a badge doesn't conclusively determine fraud.
• Communication Style Be cautious of unsolicited messages or requests for personal information, as legitimate entities typically do not initiate contact in this manner. Evaluate the overall communication style for consistency and professionalism, as deviations may suggest fraudulent intent.

Learn More

• Fact-Checking Tools — Video 3: Evaluating Social Media Accounts - opens in a new window(YouTube Video)

• How to Tell Fact From Crap in the Newsfeed- opens in a new window

Videos

Verify Videos

Video: How to Verify Online Videos

Tips for Fact-Checking Online Videos

• Verify the Source Check the origin of the video. Official websites, established news organizations, and verified social media accounts are generally more reliable sources.
• Content Analysis Scrutinize the content for any inconsistencies. Look for abrupt edits, inconsistent lighting, unnatural transitions, or poor video quality, which may indicate manipulation.
• Cross-Referencing Information Verify specific details provided in the video by cross-referencing with trustworthy sources. Check for consistency in multiple sources, especially if the video involves significant events, people, or locations.
• Reverse Image and Video Searches Utilize reverse image and video search tools to determine if the same footage has been posted elsewhere on the internet. This helps establish the video's authenticity.

Learn More

• How to spot a fake video- opens in a new window
• How to: Use InVid-WeVerify – the ‘Swiss Army Knife’ of Digital Verification- opens in a new window

• Fact-Checking Tools — Video 1: Verifying Images and Videos- opens in a new window (YouTube Video)

Additional Tools

• YouTube DataViewer — Amnesty International - opens in a new window

• Fake News Debunker — InVID and WeVerify- opens in a new window (Free Chrome Extension)

Addtional Resources

Platform Tools

There is a lot of talk about ways that tech companies can combat fake news, but there are many stumbling blocks.

Chrome and Mozilla have a variety of browser extensions that try to flag fake news. If you are trying one out, be sure to check what criteria they use to categorize sites. Some conspiracy sites have created their own detectors that will flag all mainstream media as fake!

It will be interesting to watch this technology develop, but for now, we recommend that you be your own detective!

• How Google and YouTube are investing in fact-checking- opens in a new window
• Meta's Third-Party Fact-Checking Program- opens in a new window

Resources

• Web Literacy for Student Fact-Checkers- opens in a new window - eBook by Mike Caulfield

• How Fact-Checking can Help us Stay Informed in the Digital Age- opens in a new window - University of The Cumberlands

• Tools That Fight Disinformation Online - opens in a new window - RAND.org

• Is This Legit? Digital Media Literacy 101- opens in a new window - Poynter Institute

Fake News

What is Fake News?

Fake news refers to deliberately false or misleading information presented as legitimate news. It is designed to deceive readers, viewers, or listeners, often for ideological, political, or financial purposes. This misinformation can be spread using various mediums, including traditional media outlets, social media platforms, or other online sources. Fake news can take the form of fabricated stories, manipulated images or videos, and misleading headlines, aiming to exploit cognitive biases, escalate confusion, or influence public opinion. The term gained prominence with the rise of digital media, highlighting the challenge of discerning credible information in an era where information spreads rapidly and widely. Combatting fake news requires media literacy, critical thinking, and a commitment to fact-checking and reliable sources. Below, you will learn what constitutes as fake news and what doesn't, as well as other information about the controversial term.

Categories of Fake News

According to: Journalism, 'Fake News' and Disinformation: A Handbook for Journalism Education and Training by Unesco, there are seven main categories of fake news. Learn more about each below.

Satire/ Parody

Satire is a form of humor or art that uses irony, exaggeration, ridicule, or humor to criticize or mock people, politics, society, or other subjects. It is a literary or artistic technique that aims to provoke thought, often by presenting its subject matter in a humorous or absurd light.

While satire is typically intended to be understood as a form of commentary or criticism, it can be misconstrued as fake news when its satirical nature is not recognized. In some cases, individuals may take satirical content seriously, believing it to be factual information. In the age of digital media and social networks where information is shared rapidly, the context of satire can be lost.

It is also possible for fake news websites to allege a satirical nature without explicitly labeling themselves as such, potentially indicating an intention to mislead. In contrast, legitimate satire, like The Onion, is openly acknowledged and transparently presented as satire, allowing audiences to recognize the humorous or exaggerated nature of the content.

False/ Misleading Connection

A false connection refers to a deceptive or misleading association made between elements or events to create a false narrative. This can involve linking unrelated pieces of information or events to construct a misleading interpretation. False connections are often used to manipulate perceptions, influence opinions, or advance a particular agenda.

In fake news, false connections can take various forms, such as presenting unrelated images alongside misleading headlines, distorting the context of quotes, or juxtaposing unrelated events to imply causation or correlation where none exists. The goal is to create a compelling but inaccurate story that may resonate with the audience and contribute to the spread of misinformation.

The most common example of false connection is clickbait headlines. The competitive media environment creates an incentive for editors to write headlines to attract clicks, even at the cost of decieving the readers.

Misleading Content

Misleading content refers to information that is presented in a way that can lead to a misunderstanding or misinterpretation of the actual facts.

In the context of fake news, misleading content often involves the deliberate manipulation or distortion of information to frame issues or individuals in a certain way. This can include cropping photos, taking information out of context, or presenting quotes or statistics selectively. Presenting paid advertising without identifying it as sponsored also falls into this category. The goal of misleading content is to sway public opinion, spread misinformation, or achieve a specific agenda.

False Context

False context refers to the deliberate manipulation or misrepresentation of information by placing it in a misleading context. This tactic involves taking accurate or partially accurate information and presenting it in a way that distorts its meaning or implications. In the age of digital media, it is easy for information to be re-shared easily without its original context.

False context can be achieved through various means, such as selectively quoting statements, taking information out of its original context, or using misleading headlines or images. An example of this would be taking a photo from a past event and sharing it claiming to be a recent image. The goal is to shape the narrative in a way that may mislead or deceive the audience, fostering a particular interpretation that may not align with the actual facts.

Imposter Content

Imposter content refers to deceptive information that mimics credible sources to create an illusion of legitimacy. This type of content is designed to mislead the audience by adopting the appearance, style, or format of trustworthy news outlets or official channels.

Imposter content often incorporates familiar logos, layouts, and language to give the impression of authenticity, making it more challenging for consumers to discern its fraudulent nature. It can take the form of fake websites, social media accounts, or even emails that closely resemble legitimate sources, aiming to exploit the trust people place in established information channels. Imposter content is a tactic used to lend a false air of credibility to misinformation, making it more likely to be accepted and shared.

Maniuplated Content

Manipulated content is media that has been altered or distorted with the intent to deceive or mislead. This can include manipulated images, videos, or audio recordings that have been doctored to present a false narrative or to convey information that did not occur.

In the digital age, advanced technologies make it easier to manipulate content convincingly, raising concerns about the authenticity of information presented in various media. Manipulated content can be a powerful tool in the creation and dissemination of fake news, as it aims to deceive the audience by presenting false evidence or altering the context of real events.

Fabricated Content

Fabricated content refers to media or information that is entirely made up, without any basis in reality. In the context of fake news, fabricated content includes false stories, images, videos, or other forms of media intentionally created to deceive audiences.

This can involve inventing events, quotes, or sources to present a false narrative. Fabricated content is a deliberate attempt to mislead and can be used to serve various purposes, such as spreading misinformation, influencing public opinion, or achieving a specific agenda. It is a significant concern in the realm of fake news, as the deliberate creation of false information can have real-world consequences, affecting public discourse, trust in media, and even influencing political and social dynamics.

Ultimately, individuals can combat fake news by cultivating strong media literacy skills and adopting critical thinking practices. First and foremost, cross-checking information from multiple reputable sources helps verify the accuracy of news stories. Fact-checking websites and organizations can provide additional context and confirm the credibility of claims.

It's essential to be wary of sensational headlines and scrutinize the sources of information. Engaging in diverse media consumption, including reputable sources with different perspectives, can offer a more comprehensive understanding of a given issue. Finally, sharing information responsibly by verifying its accuracy before dissemination and educating others about the importance of critical media consumption contributes to a collective effort to combat the spread of fake news.

Fake vs. Not Fake

The Fake News Universe

The world of fake news is as vast as it is fleeting. The boundaries are ever-changing and hard to comprehend, as new information is created every minute. The research team at MediaMatters.org- opens in a new window dedicated countless hours to charting as much of this intricate landscape as possible. Below is what was learned and how they come to define many of the moving parts that create an ecosystem for fake news to spread and thrive.

Other Terms for Fake News

The term "fake news" is a problematic term. It can easily be politicized and used as a weapon to undermine news sources which may not agree with one's beliefs. Instead, the terms misinformation, disinformation, and mal-information may be better used to describe the many facets of "fake news".

• Mis-information is information that is false, but the person who is disseminating it believes that it is true.
• Dis-information is information that is false, and the person who is disseminating it knows it is false. It is a deliberate, intentional lie, and points to people being actively disinformed by malicious actors.
• Mal-information is information that is based on reality, but used to inflict harm on a person, organization or country. An example is a report that reveals a person’s sexual orientation without public interest justification.

What is NOT Fake News?

The accusation of 'fake news' is becoming a common way to dismiss any news item that people don't like. In light of this trend, it is more important than ever to understand what is NOT fake news.

• Breaking News that is verified and corrected as a situation unfolds may contain factual errors that are later amended. Watch for biased assumptions here. 
• Opinion Pieces, Commentary and Editorials should be labeled as such.so it is clear to the reader. These articles may use oversimplification, hypothetical situations, and hyperbole to make their point.
• Journalism that makes you uncomfortable, or that clashes with your worldview.

Generative AI & Misinformation

The ability of generative AI tools to create realistic and convincing content can make it easy for anyone to intentionally or unintentionally spread misinformation. Certain individuals and groups can also use AI tools to maliciously create harmful content and spread propaganda or false information. Examples include AI-generated news sites- opens in a new tab, synthetic images- opens in a new tab, and deepfakes- opens in a new window.

As more AI-generated content becomes available online, it’s important to carefully evaluate them for accuracy and authenticity. Some examples of evaluation tools are the SIFT- opens in a new tab method and ROBOT- opens in a new tab test.

More Resources

• Algorithms are pushing AI-generated falsehoods at an alarming rate. How do we stop this?- opens in a new tab
• How to Spot an AI-Generated Image Like the ‘Balenciaga Pope'- opens in a new tab
• Learning to lie: AI tools adept at creating disinformation- opens in a new tab

Other Resources

• Online Disinformation- opens in a new window - Learn how to identify and fact-check disinformation from the government of Canada.

• Not Real News- opens in a new window - A roundup of some of the most popular but completely untrue stories and visuals each week, fact-checked by The Associated Press.

• Fake News: Understanding Media and Misinformation in the Digital Age- opens in a new window - eBook by contributors to The MIT Press.